Womenswear consisted of a fitted bodice, a variety of sleeve styles, and a floor-skimming wide skirt. The cage crinoline was worn over a chemise, drawers, and a corset. Corsets shortened as there was no need to confine the hips (Tortora 361). In general, corsets were not tight-laced during this period; the sheer size of the skirts made waists appear small by comparison (Mitchell 94). The location of the waistline moved upwards during the 1860s, creating a short-waisted effect that would carry into the bustle silhouette of the 1870s. Around 1865, it also became common for the topmost skirt layer to be drawn upwards to reveal the underskirt or petticoat beneath, particularly in walking dresses or those worn for sporting (Fig. 5). Petticoats, now often exposed, could then be found trimmed with ruffles along the hem and made in bold colors and patterns (Thieme 51). This double-skirted appearance became more common late in the decade, as looped overskirts and long basques came into fashion (Cunnington 230-235).

In the evening, the neckline of dresses dropped off-the-shoulder and could be straight or en coeur (dipped in the center). The neckline was often trimmed with a bertha, a folded band of fabric, usually pleated silk or a fine lace (Fig. 10). Sleeves were very short, sometimes mere straps across the shoulders (Tortora 365). Regarding outerwear, shawls continued to be favored, especially as the wide skirts were a perfect surface upon which to display a large Paisley or “India” shawl. However, jackets were increasingly worn, particularly toward the end of the decade (Severa 203-204). The paletot (Fig. 5), a three-quarter length jacket, featured loose sleeves and draped gently from shoulder to hem (Cumming 146). Mantles were another option usually worn full and often trimmed with tassels and braid (Tortora 366).

Technology and invention was evident in the fashion of 1860s women. Firstly, the use of the sewing machine grew exponentially, especially after the Civil War broke out in the United States instantly causing an enormous demand for ready-to-wear military uniforms (Tortora 358). The Singer Company, founded by Issac Singer in the 1850s, was the largest manufacturer of sewing machines in the world by 1860 and specifically created and marketed versions for domestic use (Brittanica). Soon, many women were using the sewing machine in their homes, and the ready-to-wear industry was expanded thanks to the efficiency that the sewing machine could provide. Arguably, the popularity of ready-made cloaks and cage crinolines were in part due to the sewing machine as it allowed both to be made quickly and cheaply (Tortora 358). Secondly, synthetic dyes were becoming all the rage (Fig. 11). The first one, a vivid purple hue named “mauveine,” had been invented by William Henry Perkins in 1856, and more synthetic shades quickly followed (Tortora 361). By the mid-to-late 1860s, the trend for vivid, sometimes garish colors, often in contrasting combinations, was firmly established (Cunnington 206-207).

In the early 1860s, women wore their hair parted in the center and smoothly combed back into a chignon, sometimes featuring small curls or braids above the ears (Cunnington 244). The hair net, or snood, was an all-important accessory, usually made of chenille yarns or silk, worn looped around the chignon at the back (Fig. 12). Late in the decade, hairstyles became more complicated; curls were left loose in the back underneath ever larger arrangements of braids and chignons (Fig. 13). False hair became commonplace, sold in puffs, curls, and braids. As hairstyles grew in size and complexity, the snood fell out of fashion (Severa 205-206). Throughout the decade, both the bonnet, defined by its strings tied around the chin, and the hat, which lacked such strings, were worn. In previous years, a bonnet was considered the more formal, modest choice; there had been a certain propriety about whether one wore a bonnet or a hat. During the 1860s, these rules began to fade from relevancy, a trend that continued into the 1870s (Cunnington 238). Bonnets shrank to a small depth, and were worn tipped back on the head. Hats, meanwhile, were worn at the center of the head, and were generally low-crowned, round, and could feature a wide or narrow brim. Around 1868, as hairstyles became high and cascading down the back, the hat was pushed forward to lean over the forehead (Severa 206-207). For formal evening occasions, hair ornaments of jewel, flowers, or fruit were worn (Tortora 367).

Princess Pauline von Metternich was a glittering member of the French imperial court during the 1860s, and arguably precipitated Worth’s rise to fame, becoming one of his first clients and introducing him to Empress Eugenie. Born in Vienna in 1836, Pauline became the young wife of the Austrian ambassador to France, Prince Richard von Metternich in 1856. They arrived in Paris in 1859, where she quickly established herself as a fashionable lady, one who compensated for her supposedly plain appearance by cultivating a zest for art, music, and lavish parties (Trubert-Trollu 32). More importantly, Pauline was always seen in the latest mode (Figs. 1-2), often ahead of the winds of fashion; it is said that she began to loop up her skirts to reveal a petticoat as early as 1859, a practice that would not become widespread until the mid-1860s (Thieme 51). She was a close friend of Empress Eugenie, and the emperor considered her invaluable in demonstrating the luxury and fashionability of the French court, a sign that France was regaining its prestige.

In 1860, Worth’s wife, Marie, was on a mission to gain clients for her husband from the highest in French society (Coleman 13). Pauline described in her memoirs how her maid received a book of designs from Marie, who was boldly imploring Pauline to examine them and offered that her husband would make her a gown at any price. Impressed with the artistry of the designs, Pauline ordered two gowns for only 600 francs. When she wore her new evening gown, a white tulle confection laden with diamonds and pink daisies, Empress Eugenie immediately requested an introduction to the unknown Englishman who had made it. It was noted in The House of Worth: 1858-1954, that “Worth’s career was thus launched, and never again would the princess be able to have a Worth dress for a mere 300 francs” (34). Even after the fall of the Second Empire in 1871, Pauline’s fashionable influence remained. She continued her patronage of the House of Worth after she and her husband were ordered back to Vienna (Coleman 100). Pauline and Worth remained friends for the remainder of their lives; Worth never forgot that he owed his career to Pauline (Trubert-Tollu 34).

Regarding outerwear, the chesterfield coat, edged with braid and silk velvet facings (Cumming 46), was a popular form of outerwear, alongside the short, double-breasted reefer (Tortora 371). The top frock and the Inverness, featuring an attached cape, were also fashionable (Laver 205). A cloak, similar to a woman’s mantle, was the appropriate evening outerwear (Tortora 371). Shirts, more often concealed underneath high-buttoned jackets, were now more plain than previous decades. Shirt collars were not particularly high, and often folded down, completed by a variety of ties and cravats. Waistcoats were usually single-breasted and often featured a shawl collar (Severa 209). Figure 3 depicts the various shirt, tie, and waistcoat fashions. Most men held their trousers in place with suspenders; a lovely embroidered pair was considered an appropriate gift to a man from a lady (Tortora 371).

Men wore their hair at ear level, neatly parted and combed to the side; a soft wave was considered attractive (Severa 210). A variety of whiskers were fashionable including trim beards, mustaches, and frequently, long side-whiskers sometimes referred to as “muttonchops” or “Dundreary whiskers” (Fig. 3) (Tortora 371; V&A). The silk top hat remained the predominant choice, reaching tall heights in the early 1860s. It was seen with frock coats, morning coats, and even sack jackets. However, as the decade wore on, the top hat became increasingly formal and began to be reserved for only the frock, morning and tailcoat (Shrimpton 35). The rounded bowler hat was more frequently seen with sack jackets and flat-crowned straws were worn in summer. By the late 1860s, the top hat and the bowler had diminished some in height, as the overall silhouette became more streamlined (Tortora 372).